Evaluating a protocal budget Essay

â€Å"One of the overall primary challenges organizations conducting clinical research is lack of information about the overall clinical research enterprise† says CITATION KCl96 l 1033 (K Claxton, 1996)Matthew in a recent issue of medical research laws and policy report. Hence developing a quality budget proposal outline gives a better scrutiny and analysis of the funds flow.in a clinical trial conduct, in order to acquire better financial outcomes and pass out successful audits, there is needed to be more vigilant and careful in the financial management. â€Å"Establishing guidelines to streamline and aid the management of a clinical trial program will make managing less challenging† as CITATION kel p 1999 y l 1033 (Willenberg, p. 1999). This is being emphasized in order to meet the allocated budget for a given organization. Many hospitals and academic centers lack the trained personnel for them to review the study proposals and funds which consequently lead to incorre ct billing for research. CITATION MBa04 l 1033 (M Barnes, 2004) â€Å"In order to evaluate the protocol requirement, you need to determine exactly what is going to be done as part of the protocol. Once that is completed, you should be able to determine what resources the site will need in order to implement the protocol† Preparation for a budget clinical trial is done maybe when you want to obtain funds from a granter for your research or you have been paid to conduct a certain protocol by a pharmaceutical company.in such a case you develop a budget for your research, putting into considerations things like: laboratory tests, hospital admissions, patient visits, surgical procedures and fees for the above services. These are considered as the resource requirements for you to develop a comprehensive budget. Below is a template example for a budget proposal outline I developed for a certain request for application. (RFA) Below is our application budgetCITATION kel p 2001 y l 1033 (Willenberg, p. 2001) RFA Title: Host- directed TB Therapy new approaches (UH2/UH3) RFA Number: RFA-A1-14-058 Purpose of the RFA: The main purpose for filling this request of application is to curb the adverse effects of TB brought about by Negligence and lack of follow up to these victims. This research is centered to direct TB therapies to the host individuals where each victim is screened and followed up for their healing process ensuring they take the right medication and avoid chances of infecting others. Reason for selecting this RFA – I chose this particular RFA following the upcoming of new technologies and new machines especially the gene expert machine, which processes sputum, analysis it and determines the multidrug resistance individuals, enabling their follow up. Budget (Time) Period: This clinical trial is programmed to take 2 years. Budget Categories Budget Category Description Cost $ Subtotal $ Personnel Principal investigator Graduate research assistant (lab scientist) Undergraduate research assistant (Nurse) Data staff These relates to costs incurred by the staff involved in the research process. Different types of personnel are paid according to their experience and expertise. Rates of these personnel are charged either according to rate per study visit, hourly rate or full time. The budget also included costs for new recruitment of personnel and training. CITATION MBa04 l 1033 (M Barnes, 2004)78,200 24,000 12,000 8,000 122,200 Services Screening Administrative work Costs incurred in offering services to the subject individual through evaluation, screening and costs for transport of specimen, batching and storage. 1100 270 1370 Facilities Laboratory Clinical These are the cost needed to come up with facilities where the subject individuals are taken their specimen in this case sputum for analysis and how often they visit the clinics for checkup. These facilities are needed to offer these services. 30,000 20,000 50,000 Data capturing -report forms -questionnaires -Computers -printers Collected on case report forms and questionnaires thus need to be included in the budget. Costs also incurred in obtaining and developing these data. Computers, photocopiers and printers also included in the budget. Travel Domestic trips Domestic trips Airfare This accounts for cost of all the trips made for training and meetings associated with the clinical trial, visiting other sites, scientific presentations and going to the research areas. 6400 2200 4000 12600 Equipment and suppliers -gene expert machine Cost incurred for purchasing all the related equipment needed and paying the suppliers who bring the equipment and machines to do the case study (gene expert machine for sputum processing and analysis.) CITATION KCl96 l 1033 (K Claxton, 1996)20,000 20,000 Total Expenses 206,170 Indirect Costs The research incurred extra expenses on utilities (phone and internet), cleaning and rent at an overhead rate of 8%. CITATION Fra l 1033 (Stromberg)400 400 TOTAL REQUEST 206,570 References K Claxton, J. P. (1996). Health Economics.M Barnes, J. K. (2004). Journal of health law.Ognibene, G. a. (n.d.). Evaluating a protocal budget.Stromberg, F. (n.d.). Instruments for clinical health care research. 2004. W.Staman, m. (n.d.). medical research laws and policy report. Willenberg, k. M. (n.d.). managing clinical trials-frustrations. Health economics†, (1996) – Wiley Online Library by K Claxton, J Posnnett.Look AHEAD research Group-controlled clinical trials†, (2003†- Elsevier. Instruments for clinical health-care research† by M Frank-Stromberg, SJ Olsen (2004) Practical clinical trials: increasing the value of clinical research for decision making in clinical and health policy† by SR Tunis, DB Stryer, CM Clancy-jama (2003) Source document

Describe and Explain the Findings of the Vegetation

Describe and explain the findings of the vegetation quadrats along a transect on Studland sand dunes. Figure 1 Figure 1 The results of the vegetation quadrats along a transect on Studland sand dunes showed that the amount of vegetation increased and changed, while the percentage of bare ground decreased as the sampling sites increased. The reasons behind this can be explained by clarifying what a typical transect is, starting with low embryo dunes near the shoreline and much taller mature dunes several hundred meters back from the shore (as indicated in Figure 1).As you follow the transect from the beach, the dunes get older and the vegetation changes, gradually coving more and more bare sand and increasing in height. A graph to show % vegetation cover on Studland Dunes A graph to show % vegetation cover on Studland Dunes The data suggests that at the first sampling point that there is no vegetation present. This can be justified by the fact that the sample was taken just as the dune s started on the embryo dune.Therefore reasons for no vegetation is that there are extreme conditions at this point; very high pH values (8+); rapid drainage; no humus; high wind speed and lots of salt spray, all of which make it almost impossible for vegetation to grown and the colonies, furthermore this dune can be disappear as quickly as they form. From the graph we can see that sample site 2, 3 and 4 that is on average 98% bare ground and some vegetation is appearing as is suggests there is 2% marram grass, and at sample site 5 and 6 have a 100% cover in marram grass.I think the reasons for this is because there is sparse vegetation it must be a fore dune and sample 5 and 6 might be on a yellow dune. The percentages can be explained by using knowledge of the fore and dunes which are similar except for the their maturity (yellow dunes being older and slightly more developed). Thus, the vegetation has started to grow there because there is reduced winds speed (although its still h igh, marram grass has long deep roots), decreased pH values (marram grass is salt tolerant), water is lightly more retentive (marram grass has inrolled leaves to reduce moisture loss), some humus is formed and the dune surface is continuously blow away and replaced by new sand (when t is replaced it accumulated around vegetation, however strangely marram grass thrives on being buried in sand). At sample sites 7 to 10 the graph suggest that many plants are co-existing and are also closer together which is suggested by the fact that there is 0% for bare ground, also the height of vegetation increases to 90cm, which are all characteristics of grey dunes.The wider variety, and the densely population vegetation can be explained by the features of the dune, which is a lower pH, less wind (shelter by seaward dunes), therefore less mobile sand, thus sand no longer accumulating and higher humus content all of which combine together to make a better habitat for vegetation. Lastly sample sites 11-16 must be the mature dunes, however the graph also indicates this as almost all those samples have a large percentage of heather, which is extremely common in mature dunes.Mature dunes are perfect for acid loving plants (like heather) and a wide variety co-exist together, in mature dunes there is normally acidic soils, increased organic mater content (humus), rich in nutrition and shelter developed for seaward dunes. In sample site 14 it is almost an anomaly for mature dunes, in retrospect the sample could have been in a dune slack as it is a 100% moss, because in dune slacks you find moisture loving plants, which can survive in damp low lying hollows, when there is a high water table in winter and varying pH habitat, all of which moss could with stand.Overall the graph to showing the percentage of vegetation cover and height on Studland Dunes can be explained by understanding the transect of the beach, as vegetation changes along the transect according to the pH, wind conditio n, the soils moisture, and all other factors which have been said above depending on the dunes maturity.

People Are Just as Happy as They Make Up

â€Å"People are just as happy as they make up their minds to be. † (F) What is happiness and how is it achieved? Simple questions, with different complex answers, none of which can be proved to be right or wrong. Happiness is an individual state of being of each person, acquired by one’s perception in that special moment in time. It simply depends on the individual and how they try to obtain it. Thousands of people try different paths in order to successfully achieve happiness; some of them finding it, some of them never reaching the goal. There are thousands of different answers and meanings for happiness.In this paper, I will argue that the most necessary virtue an individual needs to be have to be happy, is the virtue of mind. Aristotle, one of the most important Greek philosophers in history, defined happiness as the activity of the mind in accordance with virtue. He did not think of happiness as just a state of being; he thought of happiness to be the highest form of good. Everything people do has a specific purpose in life; it aims at something, at a final good. Happiness is an end sufficient in itself, is the end at which all our actions aim.In order to reach this perfect state, he thought the individual should possess; external, mind and bodily virtues and living and acting in accordance to them. By doing so, achieving total happiness. Virtue is what aids proper functioning, since when possessed makes the possessor good. Virtue is a matter of having an apt attitude towards pleasure and pain; therefore it lies in a mean between two extremes. Aristotle implied the mean or balance to be between two vices, the excess which is the one that exceeds and defect the one that falls short, of what is right in our desires and actions.Whereas virtue, finds and chooses what is intermediate. The idea of the virtue then, is for the desires to set the situation and for the individual to be able to choose the intermediate and act like a virtuous person. Ex ternal pleasures; such as honor, wealth and power. Physical pleasures such as beauty, health, and fertility. And mental pleasures such as; patience, intelligence and honesty, are the virtues he believed lead to a good life. In order to achieve happiness, is necessary to be a virtuous person. If the individual does not have virtues, then it does not have anything to guide heir lives by. That being said, the most important virtue to possess is the virtue of the mind, which refers to peace of mind. After being able to attain peace of mind, accomplishing the other virtues and making good use of them is much easier, since mental pleasure is the basis of every other virtue. Positive thoughts, security, believing and accepting oneself, high self-esteem and more, is what makes one happy and leads the individual in the pursuit of more positive actions, therefore making the individual more likely to obtain the other virtues.The way one thinks of themselves and the attitude that one has about life tells a lot about a person. People who have virtue of the mind are going to be happy no matter what, because they know how to react towards life, even in the moments of misfortune or disgrace. For example, people who are going through hard times know how to handle the situation better because they have a positive outlook on life and are able to cope with those situations better. People who have virtue of the mind also know their various challenges and obstacles and are still able to overcome them.Having peace of mind, and knowing how to make good use of one’s internal virtues, is an effortless way to live one’s life and have a better future. By accepting oneself intellectually, physically and interiorly, as well as accepting the environment in which one lives, including the people, the traditions and society, to the point where one respects the other people, including their acts, their way of thinking and their way of living. Peace of mind is not worrying about th e future or for the things that happened in the past.But to live the present in an authentic and exceptional manner, to not worry some day about the things you should have done before but to be satisfied and happy of how has lived their lives. Virtue of the mind also means to love oneself more than anything and anyone, since to love and care for someone one must first learn how to know, care and love themselves. Someone might object that the virtue of the mind is not the most important virtue to have since nowadays to have positive thoughts and a peaceful mind it’s not enough to make someone happy, but wealth and influence.Being beautiful, honest, intelligent, and healthy is nothing if one does not have money. Most people are always in the persistent struggle to be prosperous, given that the people who do not have money are miserable because they do not have â€Å"anything. † Poor people for example, are not happy, even though they possess physical and mind virtues; th ey lack external ones, such as money and are unfortunate because without wealth you are nothing. In the society of nowadays, being wealthy is not an option, but a must to be happy. One might object to it, but how can one explain that some wealthy and influence people are unhappy.Wealth and influence does not give people happiness. Just a positive attitude towards life would give someone the final good. There are some famous people that despite great wealth seem miserable. Some of them don’t even have a stable partner, usually get in trouble with the law all the time, fall in the live drugs, and some of them even commit suicide. Heath Ledger, for example, known as one of the best actors in history for the leading role of the joker in â€Å"The Dark Night†, recognized as one of the best-selling movies of all time.Famous, with family, wealthy and in the media everywhere, but despite all that â€Å"happiness† he had, he still committed suicide, possibly caused by a depression of not fulfilling the expectations of the fans or even not knowing how to cope with the pressure of the role. For some people money can bring a lot of happiness in the sense of stability, freedom and independence. However, money with lack of peace of mind is nothing and would get the individual nowhere.A survey titled â€Å"Joys and Dilemma of Wealth† by Boston College revealed that the wealthiest people are unhappy because they are worried about seeming ungrateful, rearing spoiled children and failing to meet expectations. These people are in the mouth of everyone; their names appear in the media with false gossip, and their privacy is always intruded. This a mistake where the individuals centered their lives on the external, and are concerned too much about what other people think without believing in themselves, leading them not only to auto destructive acts but violent actions for them and their families.For some, money and wealth gives happiness, but definitel y not the truly one. Only mental pleasure; believing in oneself, having a positive attitude, having high self-esteem and loving oneself like no other, would lead one to complete happiness. Material or external possessions are not essential, if the individual knows and recognizes what their goals in live are. To corroborate the importance of the virtues of mind to reach happiness, first of all the individual needs to realize and be aware that happiness is an internal state of being of each person.There are numerous amounts of people in the world who could serve as examples to support the importance of the virtue of mind in the path of achieving happiness. Nelson Mandela, for example, one of the most recognized, respected and admired political leaders of our time. In spite of the extremely poor conditions he had to live in during his early life and nearly three decades of imprisonment, he still struggle and did everything he could to fight for his believes against racial oppression.Hi s heroic acts made him win the Nobel Peace Prize and the presidency of his country. By this and many other important things that he has done, is when he saw his ideals and purpose in life, coming true. Most likely, giving him the complete happiness he has always fought for. Nick Vujicic is an admirable person, and another great example of the importance of just having a positive attitude towards life to be happy. Nick was born with no limbs, he is practically just torso, and has a small foot on his left hip which helps him with balance.Nick’s father taught him to swim at 18 months, to type with his little toe at just 6 years of age, and his mom invented a special plastic device for him to hold a pen or pencil with his mouth to be able to write. He plays golf, swims and surfs. Even though it was really difficult for him to adapt to his difference when little, he overcame every issue he had and nowadays is an admirable person, who has traveled to 24 countries of the world shari ng how this problem has become a blessing for him, and how just by changing your attitude towards life makes a great difference in every individual.Just like these examples, there are many more cases of people that just by having a positive attitude towards life have been able to succeed or overcome obstacles even though they have had a hard life. Supporting that if an individual has virtue of the mind, and has always a positive view, fights for their ideals and know what they want for their life they will achieve happiness. DO NOT USE â€Å"YOU†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Works Cited Little, Lyneka. Miseries of the Rich and Famous: The Concerns of the Super Rich: Wealth Does Not Bring Happiness-ABC.Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and Calibre Wealth Management, Boston College. 21 March. 2011. Web October 14. http://plato. stanford. edu/entries/aristotle/ http://answers. yahoo. com/question/index? qid=20080716235657AAyU5iY http://www. britannica. com/EBchecked/topic/34560/Aristotle/254722/Happine ss#ref923103 http://abcnews. go. com/Business/concerns-super-rich-wealth-bring-happiness/story? id=13167578#. UHsgpMVYuSo ——————————————– [ 1 ]. Abraham Lincoln

Business Ethics Article Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Business Ethics Article - Essay Example closely relates to the business issues covered in chapters 1, 3, 4 and 5. Ruud and Ruud (2011) explore different business concepts with great emphasis on ethics, law and how the business environment interacts with society. According to Ruud and Ruud (2011), business ethics results from the society values and generally demands that businesses operate in profit-making activities capable of benefiting the society and not amassing wealth at the people’s expense. The article particularly discusses the changing trends in business ethic, laws and corporate social responsibility in the global business environment. This paper explores business issues covered in chapters 1, 2, 3 and 5 and their link to issues discussed in the chosen article. Business Ethics and Good Life (Chapter one) Chapter one covers the concept of ethics in relation to the business environment and what entails good life in business. Good life is seen as the quest for pleasure and happiness throughout the lives of ma ny people. The values of the business world have been greatly influenced by the ethos of our society, and the values of the society values have as well influenced activities in the business world. According to Ruud and Ruud (2011), business values have emerged from societal values overtime in which such values are transferred into the business environment. ... Ruud and Ruud (2011) support the idea of society values influencing business ethos or values through the assertion that constantly changing societal values pose a significant challenge in the attempt of many businesses to sustain good relations with the society. Society and the business set up are inseparable with business ethos existing as guidelines to the coexistence between the business environment and the society. Finally, the concept of attaining good life in the business environment is easily achievable because it forms part of the business life. Business Life, Law and Ethics (Chapter two) This chapter progresses with the discussion of ethics in the business environment, where the view of business as solely pursuit of profits is widely disputed. The world of business is rather viewed as a community with communal values which guide its operations. Business is further seen as a tool for productivity and distribution of goods and services with the aim of benefiting the society at large. Ruud and Ruud (2011) hold similar views through the assertion that businesses must operate in ways that depict the best interests for the society. Modern societies favor businesses that pursue their profitability with clear social responsibility, thereby encouraging creation of socially responsible businesses. The importance of social responsibility in the society has seen the emergence of the corporate social responsibility. Corporate social responsibility forms part of strategic plans adopted in almost every business organization due to the societal emphasis on the need for businesses to have the interest of the society at the core of their operations. Corporate social

Diversion Rate of California Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Diversion Rate of California - Essay Example In efforts to increase diversion rates in California, in the year 2005, the state passed legislation that requires city and county jurisdictions to ensure that half of the solid wastes generated should not end up in landfills but rather are diverted through other means (Granger, 2009). Coleman (2012) highlights that there are many ways of diverting solid waste materials such as recycling, treating with compost, reusing and other acceptable waste conversion methods. With this view, California’s diversion rates have continually increased since 1990 due to enactment of stiff laws on waste management (Granger, 2009). In California, there is a national state agency called CalRecycle, which has authority on matters of recycling, waste reduction and waste reusing (Stephens, 2012). It has the main objective of overseeing waste management programs and guiding the use of resources by promoting innovativeness through technology, which encourages sustainable economy and environment. CalRecycle has initiated various legislations and rules regarding waste management (Schenkman, 2003). One of the regulations is the AB 939 Act enacted in 1989, which is focused on recycling. Its main objective was to reduce landfill waste capacity and reduce waste matter disposed off in them (Stephens, 2012). It demanded relevant agencies to ensure 25 percent diversion rates by the year 1995 and double of that t by the year 2000. AB 2020 or the California bottle bill is the second regulation to be used in California. This law provides mechanisms for minimum money refunds for qualified bottle containers. It seeks to reduce the number of bottles ending up in landfills rather than being recycled (Recycle works, 2009). The third legislation is the AB1305 or the newsprint Act. It has been in force since 1989, and it requires printers to use at least 40% of used newsprint material in half of their new newsprints. SB 2003 or the electronics-recycling bill is the other legislation

Strengths and weaknesses of Wal-Mart's entry strategy into Mexico Coursework - 1

Strengths and weaknesses of Wal-Mart's entry strategy into Mexico - Coursework Example This is the reason why Wal-Mart decided to move south of the United States to Mexico. When one understands how this move came about, the strengths and weaknesses are easily distinguished. The strengths that can be accounted here included the already known name of Wal-Mart which spoke volumes about the kind of trust and confidence that the American consumers had in this retail giant. Also the everyday low pricing mechanism, and the highly efficient operations with state of the art logistics spoke at length of how Wal-Mart had made its name as a benchmark within the American retail spheres. This was the era of early 1990s when Wal-Mart had made a decision to explore the Mexican market. It teamed up with one of the already established retailers – Cifra, so that assistance could come in handy for both the chains. They decided to launch supercenters which would sell groceries and general merchandise. Wal-Mart had a win-win situation because it was entering into a completely new mar ket and its operations within the United States had taught it that diverse customers can be served well, if there was a proper hierarchy within tasks and when operations were handled amicably. Thus the strengths for Wal-Mart depended a great deal on how it entered into the Mexican markets and created a name for itself all over again. Even though it was renowned in the United States, the slow down in the home country meant that Wal-Mart had to come up with something different and new. This could have only taken place with entrance within a new zone, yet being attached with the United States in one way or the other. Mexico is a neighboring nation of the United States and hence there were fewer risks involved for Wal-Mart because the region was more or less the same. With these strengths, came the weaknesses as well. Wal-Mart did not quite study the Mexican shopping habits and since it had already teamed up with Cifra, it knew little about the shopping trends revolving around the Mexic ans. This was an important aspect related with Wal-Mart as it needed to find out more about them to begin with. The Mexicans preferred to buy fresh produce from local stores which included items like meat, tortillas and pan duice. This was an important understanding that must have been worked upon well by Wal-Mart before it decided to land within the Mexican market. Yet somehow there was a missing link present here. Since the Mexicans did not quite have large refrigerators at home, this meant that they bought on a regular basis. It actually asked them to come back again and purchase fresh produce. Also many Mexicans did not have cars which essentially meant that they could not shop much in one go. They would come back and buy small chunks though (Anand, 2009:171). This implied for fewer volumes of purchases on their part which defied the concept of large retail chains which were introduced by Wal-Mart in the first place. Hence the weaknesses were quite of a stringent nature as far a s Wal-Mart was concerned. These needed to be worked upon at to produce sound results. What this fundamentally meant was the fact that Wal-Mart was losing ground within Mexico and since it was a new market, anything to this effect was not at all appreciated by the head quarters. Wal-Mart knew that its strengths and weaknesses

Mental Health and Behavioural Problems Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Mental Health and Behavioural Problems - Essay Example 1430). Studies show that children said to be hyperactive at three years of age had cognitive problems, this usually is observed to extend into adolescence, and such children  bear  traits like being antisocial (Moffit and Harrington 34). Randal explains that among the health problems that affect children later in childhood include anxiety disorders, mood disorders, conduct disorders, attention deficit, hyperactive disorders and substance dependence disorders (128). These behavioural problems  are explained  well by  use  of conceptual models. These models aim to provide an  explanation  for the supposed behavioural problem, and it also tries to  create  a  probable  solution to the problem. The main conceptual models include biological, psycho dynamic, behavioural, cognitive, sociological, and ecological. In the grid provided below, we will look at each model, probable explanation on how it causes a particular problem and its  method  of addressing the pro blem in question.  We shall consider gambling as the main  problem  and analyze the table below. ... This emphasises on the importance of winning in reinforcing the problem in question. This also basis its explanation on the fact that behaviour is acquired. Treatment of behavioural disorders of this origin is focused on empowerment. It focuses on solving of the issue and not on its cause. Its aim may include harm reduction, self control, or avoidance. Psychodynamic Disorder arises due to the urge to satisfy ones arousal needs. For instance, not winning may act as the reinforce of behaviour such as gambling Focus is mainly in empowerment. Cognitive Cognition focuses on the ability of an individual to interpret and conclude about events that are happening in his or her environment. Cognitive therapy is suggested as the mode of treatment, coping skills are an imparted on an individual. Patient is taught change and relapse prevention. Behavioural This is based on the fact that behaviours are learned. It says that inappropriate behaviours are as a result of inappropriate learning, and vi ce versa. Treatment achieved by imparting on an individual the various consequences of their behaviour. For those consequences that strengthen behaviour are reinforced, while those that weaken are reduced. Ecological This model takes an individual as a member of a variety of social groups. For children, the groups include school, peers and family. In this model, an individual’s performance is dependent on the nature and type of interaction he has with environment Problems arising from this are solved by identifying classroom, family, peer or group, and community environmental factors that enhance the occurrence of pleasant behaviours. Models Used in Assisting Students with Behavioural Problems The behavioural model is among the most  direct  and simplest  approach  to

RESPONSE PAPER for Comparative Politics class Essay

RESPONSE PAPER for Comparative Politics class - Essay Example the concept of comparative politics that asserts â€Å"politics in different countries works in much a similar manner and differently in others† is brought out. In this story, the concept of political similarity and differences in countries is brought out when it is asserted that the political stability of the UK is on the line. Specifically, political similarity is the most prevalent concept of comparative politics that is seen in this text. According to this concept, it is evident that like several other countries in the world that are experiencing political disunity, the UK is also on the verge of joining the same route. There is more than can be seen in the future of the unified nation because the disunity in the political arena is worrying. The entire political system in country is on the verge of entering into the unknown after enjoying political stability for several decades, and with some excellent prime ministers such as Margaret Thatcher and Tony Blair.1 The current trend is seeing the strengths of biggest political parties in the country, the conservatives and the labor, being tested by the introduction of the smaller parties into the political arena. Much the same way as in some other countries where most political parties are based on regional or ethnical backgrounds, the smaller parties in the UK have also emerged the same grounds. The smaller parties are based on regional links and their political agenda is to drift away from the current culture of two-part dominance.2 The story by CNN on the politics best brings out the concept of comparative politics. The story confirms that indeed the way politics is conducted in various countries is much similar. Much the same way like most countries in the world, UK is also facing the likelihood of mushrooming of smaller political parties. Many political scientists hold that partisanship and voting behavior are such a complex phenomenon that cannot be explained by a single model. Nevertheless, the current

Transformational Learning Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Transformational Learning - Research Paper Example In this paper, transformational learning is explored from these perspectives. Transformational Learning The concept of transformational learning has played a significant role in adult education. One of its major contributions is establishment of a basis for distinguishing between childhood and adult education. Unlike other learning perspectives such as SDL, transformational learning focuses on the cognitive process, which results in learning. Core to its constructs are the learner’s experience that is diverse as compared to the experience among young learners and an advanced level of maturity that adult learners have relative to their potentials at younger ages. These distinctions, as Rubenson explains, identify the learning approach as an adult learning theory and, therefore, supports previously developed theoretical concepts by Mezirow. Rubenson further explains that the basis of transformational learning is the change in people that arises from abrupt changes in their envir onment, their experience, and the visibility of such changes among the subjects or among people around them (Reubenson, 2011). Transformational Learning Theory Westby offers a theoretical approach to transformational learning through the Mezirow’s transformational learning theory. ... The change aspects identify experiences such as â€Å"poverty, illiteracy, and oppression† that play a significant role in adults’ cognitive constructs for transformational learning (Westby, 2007, p. 15). Another foundation for transformational learning theory is the rational nature of human beings that drives them to reflect on their experiences and develop assumptions and opinions from the experiences. Westby offers four constructs of transformational learning. These are â€Å"constructivists’ foundation, critical reflection, a shift in the world view, and a change to meaning schemes† (Westby, 2007, p. 15). Constructivism recognizes adults’ perspectives that learning is developed from life experiences and is, therefore, an intrinsic phenomenon as opposed to a development from external sources such as books and educators. Constructivism further undermines the role of educators in transferring knowledge to learners because adult learners develop kno wledge from their experiences. Reflection is another fundamental construct in transformational learning and defines knowledge development through a series of reflection into actions and reflective evaluation of actions for solutions to problems that learners may encounter. This means that transformational learning is not entirely dependent on experience, but also on the learner’s rationale, which evaluates experiences for intellectual developments. A significant change in the worldview is another definitive characteristic of transformational learning and goes beyond knowledge and skills. The change in general perception involves transformation of personal values and approaches to developing meaning from a person’s

On Conflict Settlement Essay Example for Free

On Conflict Settlement Essay Schick (1995) defines a conflict as a â€Å"distinctive structure of desires and a belief† (p. 58). A conflict arises when an agent wants x and y wherein x and y are the only options available to the agent. Given this situation, an agent may choose to react in two ways. First, the agent may choose to avoid the conflict or second, the agent may choose to resolve the conflict. In the resolution of a conflict, the agent starts to think rationally by seizing to think that the options available to him involves choosing both x and y or losing both x and y. In this sense, the agent enables the resolution of the conflict through an internal mediation of his or her desires. The same thing applies when it comes to interpersonal conflict. The difference between the two merely lies in the existence of a particular situation wherein the desires and beliefs of two or more agents tend to counter that of the other. This shows the manner in which conflicts enable the â€Å"balancing of power† within an agent or within a group (Rummel, 1991, p. 76). The balancing of powers resulting from the occurrence of a conflict enables the balancing of the following elements: interests, capabilities, and wills. Rummel (1991) notes â€Å"conflict is a balancing of individual interests, capabilities, and wills. It is a simultaneous solution to the equations of power† (p. 77). Within an interpersonal conflict, it does not necessarily mean that the agent(s) whose beliefs and desires take precedence over the other is the agent(s) who hold power within a group. The balance of powers refers to the mutual satisfaction of the different and contending interests within a group. In other words, the balance of powers may be understood as the result of the mediation within an interpersonal conflict. In the previous presentation, one of the groups presented steps that may be followed in case a conflict arises. The steps that they provided involve the agent(s) development of self-awareness. The importance of self-awareness here can be seen if one considers that it is only through the agent(s) identification of the clashing beliefs and desires that the agent(s) will be able to achieve the resolution of the conflict. This was shown by the group through a skit that they presented in class. One might note that in the skit itself, the group was able to present that failure to develop awareness may lead to aggression which might further enhance the conflict at hand. The importance of this skit does not lie in its means of providing an example for those who were present; it also enabled the audience’s direct experience of a conflict. Deutsch et al (2006) notes, â€Å"observing models deal effectively with difficult situations allows the observer to achieve greater freedom in coping with current and future problems of all sorts (p. 309). Despite of this, the group however, was unable to show that resolution and aggression are not the only means in which a conflict may end. Matthews and Roberts (2004) notes that conflicts may also lead to â€Å"collaboration and appeals to authority† (p. 451). Although one might state that this also leads to the resolution of a conflict in the sense that it ends a conflict, it is important to note that conflicts that end in this manner further breeds the creation of further disagreements amongst the agent(s) involved. Matthews and Roberts (2004) further notes that in the resolution of a conflict, there are certain skills which individuals should learn. These involve â€Å"active listening, assertiveness, expression of feelings in appropriate ways, empathy and perspective taking, cooperation, negotiation, and methods for countering bias† (p. 451). Although the group was unable to present all of these point, they were able to relay well the information that they had prepared for the presentation. In summary, given the time constraints on the group, I think the group was able to relay helpful information that will aid the members of the audience in the process of understanding and handling situations that may lead to both personal and interpersonal conflict. References Deutsch, M. et al. (2006). The Handbook of Conflict Resolution: Theory and Practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Matthews, G. R. Roberts. (2004). Emotional Intelligence: Science and Myth. Massachusetts: MIT Press. Rummel, R. (1991). The Conflict Helix. London: Transaction Publishers. Schick, F. (1997). Making Choices: A Recasting of Decision Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Principle-Agent Model of Employment Relationship

Principle-Agent Model of Employment Relationship Outline the principal-agent model relating to the employment relationship, and describe how pay models can help overcome some of the problems of performance in developing country governments. Introduction Managing scarcity is a major concern both in the private and the public sector all around the world. As the cornerstone of the economic theory the efficient and effective use of the scarce resources has been, since the acknowledgment of this social science, a paramount responsibility for public officials. Whether it was on behalf of the absolutist ruler or about the peoples interest, managing the states resources is a craft that not only has evolved in its tools but also in the scope that it covers, as new necessities arise and evolve at the pace of civilization. In the following sections, we aim to cover the Principal-Agent Model relating it to the employment relationship within the public sector, for which we will develop the main characteristics of the model with a political economy perspective. As Solow (1974) acknowledges, the world has been consuming its exhaustible resources since the beginning of time, and as the process will continue and new necessities will emerge, the state in all its forms needs to enhance its output and efficiency to address these situations. As one of the main inputs for government delivery is human capital, the choice of a proper compensation scheme, with incentives effects considering performance and quality can provide significant effects on output (Lazear, 2000). From this perspective, we will cover different payment models and incentives as tools to achieve a better and wider output in the environment of developing economies where scarce resources are more acute and social needs are more demanding, focused in the provision of the basic elements and services to help people to develop. Finally, and after going through the theoretical ground of the Principal-Agent Model and the mentioned compensation methods, we will relate them with developing country experiences and outcomes in the framework of new public management where, working altogether with other theories and components that includes a varied mix of characteristics (Gruening, 2001) such as, budget cuts, privatization, user charges, competition, separation of politics and administration, performance measurement and improved accounting, among others that we can relate to the neo-liberalist agenda, that emphasises management tools in order to achieve the goal of better public sector performance. Principal-Agent Model In theory of delegation, the core idea of the Principal-Agent Model is that the Principal needs to delegate a certain activity or job because its too busy to do it by himself. This is made by hiring a third party or Agent who will be responsible to perform the defined activities, but as the Principal is busy, it also means that he cannot observe the Agent actions perfectly. So, several ways are to be considered to motivate the actions of the Agent to favour with her actions the interests of the Principal (Gibbons, 2017). To be defined as a Principal-Agent Model some necessary features or core assumptions are required. According to the settings explained by Miller (2005), first, the agent takes actions that establishes a payoff to the principal, along with a risk variable. Secondly, there exists information asymmetries as the principal can view the outcome provided by the agent but not the actions that the latter undertook. Moreover, in many cases, the associated costs of monitoring the agent actions can be prohibitively expensive. Third, there also exists asymmetry in the preferences as those of the agents, as are assumed to diverge from the principals preferences. Also, the agent is taken to be more risk-averse than the principal.   Fourth, the principal is expected to act rationally based upon coherent preferences and is able to take the initiative by offering a contract. Fifth, agent and principal have common knowledge about the game structure, the costs, probabilities of the different outcomes and other variables. Moreover, they are conscious of the agents rationality and her preferences regarding an incentive package that its expected utility is above the agents opportunity cost. Finally, the principal is assumed to have the ability to impose the best possible solution regarding the agents inferred best response equation. In other words, The principal is endowed with all of the bargaining power in this simple setting, and thus can make a take-it-or-leave-it offer to the agent (Sappington, 1991, p. 47). Furthermore, Miller (2005) defines, from the above-mentioned assumptions, two initial results. Outcome-based incentives, to partially overcome any moral hazard problems despite information asymmetries. And, Efficiency Trade-Offs, as moral hazard sets boundaries to both transaction efficiency and the principals benefits. Efficiency in incentives endures a trade-off with risk-bearing efficiency, and the best trade-off or second best solution must involve risky outcome-based bonuses for the risk-averse agent (Shavell, 1979 in Miller, 2005). Asymmetries and Costs The relationship between the principal and the agent is not exempt of unbalances of power that operate in both ways. The former is threatened by moral hazard or informational asymmetries regarding the actions that are to be undertook by the agent. To balance this situation, the theory presumes that the principal will try to narrow these asymmetries by installing information systems and monitoring the agent. Also, they will offer incentives as a way to align the parties interests. In this alignment, principals compensate the agents not only for the collaboration agreement but for the actual result of this enterprise, performing contracts that are output oriented (Shapiro, 2005). Moreover, given the insurmountably costs of monitoring the agent, or public servant, the outcome based contract is a clear alternative against a retribution based on actions (Miller, 2005). In the public-sector sphere, if the official fails in his task, e.g. inclusive poverty alleviation programme, must be removed from office even if his actions were in the best interests of the public. This is not done out of vengeance, but as an incentive for future officials under the same information asymmetry and output-based contracts. Of course, if the programme succeeds, the official must be rewarded. This shows that there is inefficiency along the process, even though the output-based contract succeeds in reducing the moral hazard problem, it does it whilst recognizes the inefficiencies that come along with the solutions achieved, that in most cases are not Pareto-optimal in the relationship between the agent and the principal (Downs and Rocke, 1994). Moral hazard is a key component in the contract formulation. The principals are assumed to be risk neutral and the agents risk averse, as they have bet all in into the contract with the principal, the information asymmetry plays an important part as the agent will do things that might go against the principals goals in order to preserve themselves from risk. Thus, the importance to design tools to minimize this hazards (Shapiro, 2005). In addition, the principals are faced with situations that modify substantially the assumption that is the latter the one who is in control of creating incentives, specifying the preferences and making the contracts for the agents to follow. There exists many common situations in which principals need agents with expertise, or with experience that goes far beyond that of theirs, in this cases the asymmetry of information is reinforced by the shift in the asymmetry of power as it shifts from the principal to the agent (Shapiro, 2005) a common case observed with public officials and politicians. Therefore, by manipulating the incentives offered to the agent, the principal attempts to minimize agency costs or shirking, that is the losses assumed by the principal by her incapacity to align the self-interests of the agent with her owns (Miller, 2005). When it comes to the public service, two observations must be made. First, as there exists knowledge and information asymmetries and they are characteristic in many agency relationships that are opaque and quite difficult to be subject of surveillance, agents self-regulation provides a very important monitoring role. Secondly, many regulatory provisions and self-regulatory arrangements established to control agency relationships are as well agency relationships. Whether they are compliance officers, auditors, internal affairs departments, insurance companies, investment advisors or government regulators, the monitors act on behalf of the principals. Therefore, they also comprise agency problems (Shapiro, 2005). Shirking, cooptation or corruption becomes part of the equation. So, the question of Who monitors the monitors? (Shapiro, 1987) arises, creating a structure of agents controlling agents. The later question demands more attention from the political science view as sanctions are required to induce agents to properly perform their duties. Budget cuts, firing officials, recontracting or voting them out of office are ways used in the public sector to align the agents objectives with those of the principals. As Mitnick (1998, in Shapiro, 2005) explains, these situations inevitably comes with associated agency costs, when they are too high, either in political or economic terms, principals might choose not to expend resources on them. Furthermore, as politicians might not bear the burden of the consequences of the agents self-interested, opportunistic actions, the costs most likely are passed through to the public. This creates the perfect environment for increased laxity of monitoring activities in the public sector (Meier and Waterman, 1998). Contracts, Pay Models and Performance It is clear now that the channel to implement the required balances of power and influence is through the correct design of the contracts where the principals delegation to the agent will be embodied. Sadly, there is not a golden rule for contract design as every relationship is different and requires diverse considerations to achieve the best possible outcome considering most of the contingencies. Nevertheless, there is a caveat to consider as there are substantially different scenarios between the contracts and incentives options for the public sector than those of the private, more flexible, one. We must remember that the beginnings of the new public management and the considerations of the principal-agent theory are rooted in the developments in management techniques provided by the private sector in its search for efficiency and productivity. For this particular reason, we cover the more standardized retributive models to, afterwards, be able to apply them to the public sector with the necessary considerations. One of the entrepreneurs in compensation techniques was Henry Ford who addressed the high rotation of personnel and absenteeism that his motor company suffered by increasing the hourly wages high above the average threshold in the industry. This basic action provided immediate effects as productivity, commitment increased whilst personnel rotation decreased. This decision, though basic today provided a clear example of what incentives can produce in a given organization. But, Fords times are over and the complexity of transactions, markets and peoples needs have evolved into a more sophisticated retribution design. A rather common output-based contract is the Piece-rate payment instead of the classic hourly payment. This kind of contract works for certain organizations, and has proven to be effective in the increase of productivity due to two components: the increased production per worker due to incentive effects and a natural shift towards more capable, results driven employees recruited to fill the posts of those that are unable to produce enough to maintain their previous level of income. This generates profits sharing between the company and the labour force as part of the productivity gains are split among them, whilst encouraging more ambitious workers to differentiate themselves, both characteristics are unable to be achieved with a basic salary retribution (Lazear, 2000). Is understood that covenants regarding quality and other issues must be addressed in the contract to avoid future backfires. There exist different alternatives of contracts regarding the agents retributions. But they all aim to be the optimal solution to the information asymmetry problem. Authors also suggest the analysis of retribution in a time frame perspective, where initially the agent will be paid a wage lower than his alternative wage, with the promise of future, career attached, above the threshold wages as an alternative to avoid shirking when monitoring the agents activities is imperfect. Moreover, this method of delayed-payment or bonding contract is efficient as it doesnt alter the present value of the best alternative compensation. Also, this system provides the principal with an additional tool which is the increasing cost of job loss to keep the agent focused on the principals objectives (Krueger, 1990). A tool that is also related with bonuses or options related compensations. In jobs that are capital intensive and highly routinized, there is also room for shirking, absenteeism, theft, high turnover, waste, misuse of equipment or poor service that have a significant effect on output and performance (Krueger, 1990). These situations observed in certain industries can be also seen in some public offices, with the condiment that in many cases there also exists the limitation of law and regulation regarding the protection of the public employment that creates a further layer of asymmetry in the principal-agent relationship. The relationship can be turned-over as the principal becomes the employees that are unionized and the agent, the organization for whom they work. In cases where it has full negotiation power for determining the labour contract, the unions will demand higher salaries and in-kind payments that goes straight against the goal of maximizing the output as the cost increases (Laffont and Martimore, 2001). Moreover, there exists the risks of overemployment due to the mentioned legislation coverage, that prevents the organization to restructure its personnel and achieve a maximization of output through increased productivity. As Shapiro (2005) acknowledges, over time the agents acquire influence over other groups than their principals that increases their protection against any sanction that might be cast upon them. And as in many cases agents -government officials or corporate directors- outlive their principals (politicians, shareholders), the balance of power may shift. Performance and Development From all the above covered, we clearly observe that performance enhancing measures are activities that arent free of charge. In fact, even in private companies the application of any structural change regarding increasing output or efficiency comes with stressful situations that might be so disruptive that can stop the process. This situation, when taken to the public sector, where the motors of change are elected official with a fixed term in office, provides situations that require strong commitment and enough negotiations skills to prove the workforce and the ultimate principals, the voters, of the necessity of change. In this section, we will cover the approach that developing countries have taken to address and minimize situations that reduce performance or hold back efficiency. Improving Health Service Delivery Performance enhancement is a key factor to achieve the health-associated Millennium Development Goals. Hence, looking for improved ways for service delivery is significantly important. A way to achieve this goals has been the application of government contracting with third parties such as non-governmental organizations (NGOs) practitioners, universities or companies. As Loevinsohn and Harding (2005) expose, contracts for health service delivery provides some interesting characteristics. First, they ensure a more precise focus on measurable results, especially when the contracts are defined objectively with measurable outputs. Secondly, they overcome some constraints that can prevent governments to efficiently use the available resources, such as the ones mentioned in the previous section. Third, the use of the private sectors flexibility can improve service delivery. Fourth, increased autonomy and decentralization in the decision-making process allows a faster response to peoples ne eds. Fifth, as contracting is through public offers, it will increase the efficiency because of price competition or, if its recruiting for staff, will attract better qualified agents. Finally, as these activities are outsourced in its execution allows governments to focus more on its other roles, such as planning, financing, regulation and more varied public health functions. Of course, in addition to the caveats covered in this paper, the thought of contracting non-state institutions to perform public activities comes with other difficulties as contracting should cover a sufficiently large scale to make a difference in aggregate service output. Which in turn, leads to both more expensive contracts and a shift in the balance of power due to principals (government) limited capacity to manage this contracts in the most efficient way once the service is instituted. Hence, there will be unsustainability risks in the contracting (Loevinsohn and Harding, 2005). However, governments have different types of contracts to provide a principal-agent relationship with positive results for society. In a service delivery contract, the state decides the services to be provided, where, and the integration scale in the infrastructure and supply management, where, personnel, equipment or consumables will be, or provided. There are intermediate options such as a management contract, where the agent will take over on the government health workers and take care of the increase in the salary, which will be linked to outcome based indicators (Loevinsohn and Harding, 2005). In this case, there is a limited effect in the principals shift of power as the agent remains in a rather weak position as it can be dismissed if does not accomplish the performance levels pre-contracted. When contrasted with some average scenarios in many developing countries, where the public sector underperforms or barely function at all, due to factors such as poverty, corruption, chronical economic crisis and political instability. Public officials morale is undermined and in some situations absenteeism increases or there are a lack of tasks or resources to work with, pervasive corruption and rent seeking characterises the public sector in many places in the world (Grindle, 1997). Reforms to increase performance and effectiveness are demanded both by the public and by the politicians, whos agency contract with society depends on their performance. Nevertheless, Loevinsohn and Harding (2005) research provides evidence of the impressive improvements achieved by government contracting with third parties in the performance of the service delivery. Whether primary health care in Guatemala or nutrition programmes in Africa, contracting yielded positive results. In some case studies the contractors were proven to be more effective than the state agencies, regarding several measures on quality of service and coverage. As an example, in India a NGO was able to deliver an increase of 14% in tuberculosis treatment completion rates at a lower cost than the public services in a nearby area (Murthy et al. 2001). Contracting under specific, results driven conditions has proven to deliver impressive and rapid results. The studies made on programmes that are ongoing suggest that there is a link between the high performing programmes with increased autonomy given to contractors, cases such as Cambodia, where Rural Primary Health Provision and District Hospitals, where output-based service delivery contracts provided better results than traditional management contracts. A result consistent with the characteristics of hospital services where autonomy in the workforce management is significantly important to improve performance (Harding and Preker, 2003). It is to be expected to generate controversy by contracting with non-governmental institutions to provide services. Critics often relate this movements as pro neo-liberal desires of privatization, while financing them with public resources with the objective to limit the government involvement in services such as health care or education. However, some programmes are designed and implemented due to internal analysis of the lack of expertise or proper resources to cover and deliver a defined set of services, a process that can lead to more efficient expenditures without reducing the public expenditure for that item (Loevinsohn and Harding, 2005). Hence, increasing performance and output. The above-mentioned examples are among many others where new public management techniques or concepts apply. The Principal-Agent model expressed in the relationship between the state and a third party specialized in service delivery shows that such a complex relationship should be followed in those activities that allow to be critically measurable, without being put through subjectivities in the performance analysis. When the Principal-Agent relationship is put under the scope of political science there are interesting considerations to be made. When we analyse the delegation process or the objective we might observe that maybe the goal is to provide an enhanced credibility in the commitments made, or to avoid the cost of unpopular policies. Instead of aligning the interests of the agents with theirs, principals who seek credibility from their agents choose other agents with different preferences regarding policies and provide them with considerable autonomy and discretion as a way to provide contracts with independence whilst seeking accountability for their actions (Majone, 2001 in Shapiro, 2005). As we can see, contracting under the principal-agent model is not a simple activity. There are so many variables that can affect the efficiency of the objective rather than its effectiveness, that it proves complicated to perform corrective measures. Therefore, the monitor eye is so important. The threat of future sanctions provides the agents, and in the public arena, some principals, with the incentives to perform their activities properly. Moreover, in democracies, where congressional oversight is available, and where effective incentives systems are applied, less often sanctions should be observed in the form of hearings and investigations. Direct and continuous monitoring of inputs rather than results proves to be an inefficient tool for controlling the agent (Miller, 2005). This provides a further incentive for the proper implementation and design of outcome-based contracts. Conclusion In the present paper, we have gone through the standard framework of the Principal-Agent model, where we have covered the technical requirements to be met in order to perform this kind of contracts. Always from the basis that is the Principals need of delegation of a certain activity, the trigger for entering in this contract based relationship in which there exists characteristics such as information asymmetries, efficiency trade-offs and relatively high monitoring costs associated. Furthermore, we have gone into a deeper analysis of the causes and costs related to the different asymmetries that can be observed in the principal-agent relationship and the particular impact that this can cause in contracts performed with the public sector. For which we have also covered the mainstream contract typology, the intrinsic objectives of the correct formulation of the agreement in order to avoid shirking and goals divergences. To finally, approach performance issues with developing country experiences related to the health sector as it is one of the public services that can have its output clearly and objectively measured without further complications or subjectivities. From all the above covered, we clearly can see that Principal-Agent contracts applied to governments is possible and yields positive results. But, it is also clear that is not an easy or systematic task. As it requires many considerations and attention to the caveats mentioned and many others that can apply due to the intrinsic characteristics of the tasks and the outcomes negotiated. We must also bear in mind that this kind of contracts also bear internal difficulties within the government agencies as not all of them are fit to be part of this kind of arrangements. In addition, we cannot think of implementing an effective principal-agent relationship without pursuing other structural changes in the governmental structures. As Robert McNamara, former president of the World Bank, claimed in most countries, the centralized administration of scarce resources both money and skills has usually resulted in most of them being allocated to a small group of the rich and powerful. This is not surprising since economic rationalizing, political pressure and selfish interest often conspire to the detriment of the poor. [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] experience shows that there is a greater chance of success if institutions provide for popular participation, local leadership and decentralization of authority (World Bank, 1975, p.93). Moreover, Rondinelli (1981) focuses on the efficient delivery of services depending upon the effective organization at community levels to have a strong interaction with the agencies in charge of service delivery to establish priorities and set objectives. This paper aimed to observe the impact of the Principal-Agent Model as a tool to gain in efficiency and increase performance levels in the public sector. From all the above covered, we can see that, if properly implemented and with the necessary systemic view, this incentive-based tool is strong enough to help government agencies to increase their output and provide better services for the community. Again, is not the easy path, but it can payoff. References Downs, George W. and Rocke, David M. (1994) Conflict, agency and gambling for resurrection: The principal-agent problem goes to war. American Journal of Political Science. Vol. 38 pp. 362-380. Gibbons, Robert (2017) Lecture Note 1: Agency Theory. MBA Course 15.903: Organizational Economics and Corporate Strategy. MIT Sloan School of Management. Massachusetts. Grindle, Merilee S. (1997) Divergent Cultures? When Public Organizations Perform Well in Developing Countries. World Development. Vol. 25, pp. 481-495. Gruening, Gernod (2001). Origin and theoretical basis of New Public Management. International Public Management Journal 4 (2001) 1-25. Harding, April and Preker, Alexander S. (2003) Innovations in Health Service Delivery: The Corporatization of Public Hospitals. Health, Nutrition, and Population. World Bank. Washington D.C. Krueger, Alan B. (1990) Ownership, Agency and Wages: An examination of franchising in the Fast food industry. National Bureau of Economic Research. Working Paper No. 3.334. Laffont, Jean-Jacques and Martimore, David (2001) The Theory of Incentives: The Principal-Agent Model. Princeton University Press. New Jersey. Lazear, Edward P. (2000) Performance Pay and Productivity. The American Economic Review. Vol. 90, pp. 1346-1361. Loevinsohn, Benjamin and Harding, April (2005) Buying results? Contracting for health service delivery in developing countries. The Lancet. Vol. 366, pp. 676-681. Meier, Kenneth J. and Waterman, Richard W. (1998) Principal-agent models: an expansion? Journal of Public Administration and Research Theory. Vol. 8, pp. 173-202. Miller, Gary J. (2005) The Political Evolution of Principal-Agent Models. Annual Review of Political Science. Vol. 8, pp. 203-225. Murthy K.J.R., Frieden T.R., Yazdani A. and Hreshikesh P. (2001) Public private partnership in tuberculosis control: experience in Hyderabad, India. The International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease. Vol. 5, pp. 354 -359. Sappington, David E. M. (1991) Incentives in principal-agent relationships. Journal of Economic Perspectives. Vol. 5, pp. 45-66. Shapiro, Susan P. (1987) The social control of impersonal trust. American Journal of Sociology. Vol. 93, pp. 623-658. Rondinelli, Dennis A. (1981) Government Decentralization in Comparative Perspective: Theory and Practice in Developing Countries. International Review of Administrative Sciences. Vol. 47, pp. 133-145. Shapiro, Susan P. (2005) Agency Theory. Annual Review of Sociology. Vol. 30, pp. 263-284. Solow, Robert M. (1974) The Economics of Resources or the Resources of Economics. The American Economic Review. Vol. 64, pp. 1-14. World Bank (1975) The Assault on World Poverty. John Hopkins University Press. Baltimore.